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Author: james

Asset Protection Trusts: What They Actually Protect You From

For most of American legal history, there was a rule so basic it barely needed saying out loud: you cannot put your own money in a trust, name yourself as the person who benefits from it, and then tell your creditors they can’t touch it. That would let anyone erase their debts by mailing money to themselves through a piece of paper. Then, starting in 1997, a handful of states quietly passed laws that did exactly the thing the old rule said couldn’t be done — and the rest of the country is still catching up to what that actually means.

The old rule, and the states that broke it

Under the traditional common-law rule, still followed by most states, a self-settled spendthrift trust — one where you’re both the person funding it and the person who benefits from it — provides no creditor protection at all. Your creditors can reach whatever you could reach yourself. This isn’t a technicality; it’s the basic logic of why spendthrift protection exists in the first place: it protects a beneficiary from their own creditors precisely because that beneficiary didn’t control the money that went in.

Alaska broke from that rule first, enacting the first domestic asset protection trust (DAPT) statute in 1997.¹ Since then, a minority of states — including Nevada, South Dakota, Delaware, and roughly a dozen others — have followed, each passing legislation permitting self-settled trusts to shield assets from the settlor’s own future creditors, provided specific statutory formalities are met.² Notably, most of these states have no independent connection to the person setting up the trust — you don’t need to live in Nevada or South Dakota to use a Nevada or South Dakota DAPT. The statutes were written, in part, specifically to attract this kind of trust business from out of state.

What the trust actually has to survive

”Protects your assets from creditors” undersells how narrow and conditional the protection actually is. Two separate legal systems can still reach into a DAPT, and both matter more than the marketing materials tend to suggest.

The first is the Uniform Voidable Transactions Act (the modern version of what used to be called the Uniform Fraudulent Transfer Act), which lets a court unwind a transfer made with the intent to hinder, delay, or defraud a creditor — timing is everything here. A DAPT funded after a lawsuit is already threatened, or after a debt is already owed, is exactly the kind of transfer this law exists to reverse. The trust has to be funded well before trouble arrives to have any real chance of holding up.

The second, and the one people underestimate most, is federal bankruptcy law. Under 11 U.S.C. §548(e), a bankruptcy trustee may avoid — unwind — any transfer made to a self-settled trust or similar device within ten years before the bankruptcy filing, if the transfer was made with actual intent to hinder, delay, or defraud a creditor.³ That’s a dramatically longer reach-back than ordinary fraudulent transfer claims typically allow, and it exists specifically because Congress was aware DAPTs were being used this way. A DAPT that would otherwise hold up perfectly well under its home state’s law can still be unwound in a federal bankruptcy proceeding under this ten-year window.

The jurisdiction fight nobody expects

Some DAPT statutes attempt to guarantee that only courts in the trust’s home state can hear a fraudulent transfer challenge against it — a built-in home-field advantage. That guarantee is weaker than it sounds. In at least one documented case, a federal appellate court held that Alaska’s attempt to grant its own courts exclusive jurisdiction over fraudulent transfer claims against Alaska self-settled trusts could not strip a Montana court, or a federal bankruptcy court, of jurisdiction it otherwise had.⁴ A DAPT’s protection is only as strong as the willingness of every court that might ever hear a claim against it to respect the state law that created it — and that willingness isn’t universal.

Who this actually serves, and who it doesn’t

A DAPT is a tool for protecting assets from future, unknown creditors — the malpractice suit that hasn’t happened yet, the business liability nobody’s predicted. It is not, and cannot legally be, a tool for protecting assets from a creditor you already know about or a debt you already owe. That distinction is the entire hinge the fraudulent-transfer and bankruptcy rules turn on. If you’re funding a DAPT because a specific lawsuit already exists, you’re not ahead of the risk — you’re behind it, and the transfer itself becomes the evidence used to unwind it.

This is also not a tool most people need. It’s built for a specific risk profile — physicians, business owners, and others facing genuine, ongoing liability exposure — not for a general sense of wanting to protect an inheritance from hypothetical future risk. For that more common concern, an irrevocable trust with a spendthrift provision benefiting someone other than the person who funded it (an heir, not the settlor) already accomplishes that goal under the traditional rule, in every state, without needing a specialized DAPT jurisdiction at all.

Sources

1. Alaska Trust Act, enacted 1997 — first U.S. statute authorizing self-settled domestic asset protection trusts.

2. State DAPT statutes currently include Nevada, South Dakota, Delaware, Alaska, and roughly a dozen additional states; specific statutory requirements (trustee residency, spendthrift language, retained powers) vary by state — confirm current requirements directly with the relevant state’s trust code.

3. 11 U.S.C. §548(e) — federal bankruptcy trustee’s authority to avoid transfers to a self-settled trust or similar device made within 10 years before a bankruptcy petition, where actual intent to hinder, delay, or defraud a creditor is shown.

4. Federal appellate case law addressing the limits of state DAPT statutes’ attempted exclusive-jurisdiction provisions over fraudulent transfer claims (jurisdiction-specific; consult current case law in the relevant circuit).

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Asset protection trust law is highly state- and fact-specific, and improperly timed or structured transfers can be unwound; consult a licensed attorney with specific asset protection trust experience before creating one.

August 19, 2026
Beneficiary RMD Rules: What You Owe on an Inherited Retirement Account

A woman inherited her father’s traditional IRA in 2021 and, having heard she had “ten years” to deal with it, did nothing for four years — no withdrawals, no plan, just a vague sense of a distant deadline. She wasn’t wrong that a ten-year window applied. She was wrong that it meant she could ignore the account until year ten. Her father had already been taking required distributions before he died, which meant she was supposed to be taking annual withdrawals of her own the entire time — and she’d missed four years of them, each one now exposed to a federal penalty that exists specifically to punish exactly this kind of delay.

The ten-year rule is a deadline, not a grace period

Under current IRS rules, most beneficiaries who inherit an IRA or employer retirement plan from someone who died in 2020 or later must fully empty the account by December 31 of the tenth year following the year of death.¹ What frequently gets lost in that summary is a second, separate requirement layered on top: if the original account owner had already reached their required beginning date for distributions — meaning they were already required to take RMDs themselves before they died — most beneficiaries must also take annual required minimum distributions in years one through nine of that ten-year window, not just a single lump-sum withdrawal at the end.² The ten-year rule sets the outer deadline for emptying the account. It does not, by itself, mean nothing is due until year ten.

Why the original owner’s age at death changes everything

Whether annual distributions are required during those nine years hinges entirely on one fact about the person who died: had they already reached their required beginning date. If the original owner died before that date — before they were personally required to start taking distributions — a beneficiary subject to the ten-year rule can wait and take the entire balance in a single withdrawal in year ten, with no annual distributions required in between. If the original owner died on or after that date, the beneficiary must take annual distributions in years one through nine, calculated using the same life expectancy tables the IRS uses for RMDs generally, with the entire remaining balance due by the end of year ten regardless.³ Two people can inherit functionally identical IRAs and face entirely different annual obligations, based solely on how old the original owner was when they died relative to their own required beginning date.

The narrower group that escapes the ten-year rule entirely

A specific category of beneficiaries — “eligible designated beneficiaries” — isn’t bound by the ten-year rule at all, and instead may stretch distributions across their own life expectancy, similar to the rules that applied to all beneficiaries before 2020. This group includes surviving spouses, minor children of the original account owner (until they reach the age of majority, at which point the ten-year clock starts), beneficiaries who are disabled or chronically ill as defined by the IRS, and beneficiaries who are not more than ten years younger than the original owner.⁴ A sibling close in age to the deceased, for instance, may qualify for lifetime stretch distributions where an adult child, being further removed in age in some cases, would not — the category depends on the specific relationship and age gap, not on general fairness.

The math behind an annual required distribution

For beneficiaries required to take annual distributions, the calculation uses the account’s value as of December 31 of the prior year, divided by a life expectancy factor pulled from the IRS’s Single Life Expectancy Table, based on the beneficiary’s age.⁵ That factor decreases by one each subsequent year rather than being looked up fresh annually, which means the required percentage withdrawn from the account gradually increases over time as the divisor shrinks — a beneficiary using this method in year one might withdraw a relatively modest percentage, and a meaningfully larger percentage by year nine, simply due to the mechanics of a shrinking life expectancy factor applied to what may also be a shrinking account balance.

What actually happens if you miss one, and it’s better than it used to be

Missing a required distribution triggers an excise tax under Internal Revenue Code Section 4974 — historically 50% of the amount that should have been withdrawn, reduced by SECURE 2.0 to 25%, and further reduced to 10% if the missed distribution is corrected within a specified correction window, generally two years.⁶ That’s a meaningful penalty on money that was never actually spent, calculated on a shortfall the beneficiary may not have even realized existed — which is exactly the trap the woman in the opening example walked into, four years of the wrong assumption about what “ten years” actually required of her along the way.

The single question that resolves almost all of the confusion

Beneficiaries navigating an inherited retirement account can cut through most of the confusion above with one question, answered early: had the original account owner already reached their required beginning date when they died. That single fact determines whether annual distributions are required during the ten-year window or whether the balance can simply be withdrawn at the end — and getting it wrong, in either direction, either forfeits years of potential tax-deferred growth by withdrawing too early, or triggers the excise tax by withdrawing too late.

Sources

1. Internal Revenue Service, Publication 590-B, “Distributions from Individual Retirement Arrangements (IRAs)” — 10-year rule for most designated beneficiaries of owners who died in 2020 or later.

2. IRS final regulations on required minimum distributions (T.D. 10001, July 2024); IRS Notice 2024-35 — annual RMD requirement during the 10-year window when the original owner died on or after their required beginning date.

3. IRS Publication 590-B, Appendix B, Single Life Expectancy Table — life expectancy factors used to calculate annual distributions for non-spouse beneficiaries subject to the 10-year rule with annual RMD requirements.

4. IRS Publication 590-B — definition of “eligible designated beneficiary”: surviving spouse, minor child of the account owner, disabled individual, chronically ill individual, or an individual not more than 10 years younger than the account owner.

5. IRS Publication 590-B, Appendix B — methodology for calculating required minimum distributions using account balance divided by the applicable life expectancy factor.

6. 26 U.S. Code § 4974 — excise tax on missed required minimum distributions; SECURE 2.0 Act reduction of the penalty from 50% to 25%, further reduced to 10% for distributions corrected within the applicable correction window.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Inherited retirement account rules are complex and depend on the type of account, the beneficiary’s relationship to the owner, and the owner’s age at death. Consult a licensed tax professional or estate attorney regarding your specific inherited account.

August 19, 2026
Business Succession Planning: Keeping a Family Business in the Family

According to data compiled by the U.S. Small Business Administration’s Office of Advocacy, only about 30% of family-owned businesses in the United States survive into the second generation, roughly 12% make it to the third, and about 3% survive to the fourth generation and beyond.¹ Those numbers describe something more specific than “businesses failing.” Most of these companies aren’t going under because the product stopped working or the market disappeared. They’re disappearing because nobody wrote down, clearly and in advance, who was supposed to run the thing next — and by the time that question became urgent, it was being answered in a hospital waiting room or a funeral home instead of a conference room.

The plan most owners actually have isn’t a plan

Ask a business owner if they have a succession plan, and a common answer is some version of “my son will take over” or “my daughter knows the business.” That’s a hope, not a plan — and the difference matters enormously the moment the owner is unexpectedly unable to run the business, whether from death, disability, or simply an accident that puts them in a hospital for six weeks. A genuine succession plan answers specific, uncomfortable questions in writing, well before they’re needed: who has legal authority to make decisions if the owner can’t, how ownership actually transfers and on what timeline, how a successor is trained and evaluated before they’re handed full control, and how any children not involved in the business are treated fairly relative to those who are.

Why “treating everyone fairly” and “treating everyone equally” are not the same instruction

One of the most common succession planning failures isn’t a lack of planning — it’s a plan built around equal division of a business among children who did not contribute equally to it. A child who spent fifteen years working in the business, learning it, and building relationships with its customers and employees is not in the same position as a sibling who pursued an entirely different career and has no operational involvement. Splitting ownership equally between them can create an outcome where the working child is now answerable to a co-owner sibling with equal voting power and no operational knowledge — a structure that frequently damages both the business and the sibling relationship. Many succession plans address this by giving the operating child the business itself, or controlling ownership of it, while other children receive other estate assets or life insurance proceeds of comparable value — a fair outcome that isn’t an equal one, achieved deliberately rather than by default.

The gap between wanting a successor ready and making them ready

A separate finding worth taking seriously: broader family business research has repeatedly found that a majority of family businesses lack any formal development plan for preparing the next generation of leadership, even when a specific successor has informally been identified.² Naming an heir apparent isn’t the same as building their competence — that requires years of deliberate exposure to the parts of the business the eventual successor doesn’t yet understand: banking relationships, supplier negotiations, the parts of the operation that only the founder currently holds in their head. A plan that names a successor but never builds this readiness has solved the easy half of the problem and left the hard half undone.

The legal structure has to match the human plan

Even a well-thought-out succession intention needs legal infrastructure to actually execute if the owner dies or becomes incapacitated unexpectedly: a buy-sell agreement specifying how ownership transfers and at what valuation if an owner dies, becomes disabled, or wants to exit; updated estate planning documents that align with the succession intention rather than contradicting it through an outdated will; and often a trust or family limited partnership structure that allows ownership to transition gradually rather than all at once. A succession conversation that happens at the family dinner table but never gets reflected in the actual legal documents governing the business and the owner’s estate is, legally speaking, still unplanned — the documents, not the conversation, are what a court, a bank, or a surviving family member will actually rely on.

What’s actually being protected

A business succession plan isn’t really about the business as an asset — it’s about protecting the relationships and livelihoods that depend on the business continuing to function: employees who’ve built careers there, a successor who needs the authority to actually lead rather than merely inherit a title, and family members who need clarity rather than a fight over an ambiguous inheritance. The businesses that survive past the founding generation tend to share one trait more than any other: someone wrote the hard decisions down, on purpose, well before they became urgent.

Sources

1. U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy — family business generational survival statistics (approximately 30% survive to the second generation, 12% to the third, 3% to the fourth generation and beyond).

2. Family business succession research (Kreischer Miller Family Business Survey; PwC US Family Business Survey) — finding that a majority of family businesses lack a formal, documented leadership development plan for next-generation successors.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Business succession planning involves legal, tax, and valuation considerations specific to each business and family. Consult a licensed estate attorney, business valuation professional, and tax professional to develop a succession plan for your business.

August 19, 2026
Charitable Remainder Trusts: Give to Charity, Keep an Income Stream

Ruth owned a rental property she’d held for thirty years, bought for $80,000, now worth $600,000. She wanted to sell it, wanted the cash flow in retirement, and wanted to leave something to the local hospice that had cared for her husband. She assumed those three wants were in conflict — sell it and pay a punishing capital gains bill, or hold it and give up the liquidity, or give it away outright and get nothing back. She was wrong about the conflict. There’s a structure built specifically to let a person do all three at once, and the reason it works is almost the opposite of what “charitable” sounds like: it works because the trust, not Ruth, is the one selling the property.

The trick is who’s actually named on the sale

A charitable remainder trust (CRT) is an irrevocable trust that pays income to a named beneficiary — often the person who created it — for a term of years or for life, with whatever remains at the end going to one or more qualified charities.¹ The sequence that makes it work: the donor transfers an appreciated asset into the trust first, and the trust sells it second. Because the trust itself is exempt from tax on the sale (except in narrow cases involving unrelated business income), the full sale proceeds go to work generating the income stream, rather than being reduced by capital gains tax before they’re ever invested.² Ruth doesn’t avoid the capital gains tax forever — she defers it, and it comes back to her gradually, as a component of the payments she receives over time, rather than as one lump bill in the year of sale.

That deferral is the entire financial engine of the structure. A $520,000 gain taxed all at once, in the year of sale, at ordinary capital gains rates, is a very different number than that same gain recognized in slices over fifteen or twenty years of trust distributions — both because of the time value of money and because spreading the recognition can keep a retiree out of higher tax brackets in any single year.

The two flavors, and why the choice matters more than it sounds like it should

A charitable remainder annuity trust (CRAT) pays a fixed dollar amount each year, set once at the trust’s creation and never adjusted afterward. A charitable remainder unitrust (CRUT) pays a fixed percentage of the trust’s value, revalued annually — meaning the payment rises and falls with the trust’s investment performance.³ A CRAT is the more predictable, more conservative choice; a CRUT is the one that participates in growth, and also the only one of the two that permits additional contributions after the trust is established. Neither is objectively better — a retiree prioritizing stability of income takes the annuity structure; a retiree comfortable with variability in exchange for upside takes the unitrust.

The IRS didn’t leave the percentages up to negotiation

Two federal guardrails apply to every CRT, and they exist specifically to stop the structure from becoming a pure tax shelter with only a token gift to charity attached. The annual payout must be at least 5% and no more than 50% of the trust’s value. Separately, the present value of what’s projected to ultimately reach the charity must equal at least 10% of the trust’s initial value, calculated using IRS actuarial tables at the time the trust is funded.⁴ Push the payout rate too high, or extend the term too long, and the trust simply fails to qualify as a CRT under the tax code — there’s no partial credit.

When the trust does qualify, the donor also receives an immediate partial income tax deduction in the year the trust is funded, sized to the present value of the charity’s eventual remainder interest — not the full value of what went into the trust.⁵ That’s a smaller number than people initially expect, and worth knowing up front rather than discovering at tax time.

What comes out isn’t taxed like a paycheck — it’s taxed in order

Here’s the mechanism almost nobody explains until it shows up on a Schedule K-1: distributions from a CRT aren’t taxed as a single flat category of income. The IRS applies a tiered ordering rule. Payments are first characterized as ordinary income, to the extent the trust has any — current or accumulated. Only once that tier is exhausted do payments get characterized as capital gains. After that, tax-exempt and other income follow, each their own tier.⁶ In practice, this means the character of what a beneficiary reports on their tax return can shift from year to year depending on what the trust actually earned and realized, not on what the beneficiary would prefer to report.

The part that makes this the wrong tool for some goals, no matter how good it sounds for others

A CRT is irrevocable. Once funded, the asset belongs to the trust, not to Ruth, and whatever remains at the end goes to charity — not back to her estate, not to her children. This isn’t a workaround or a loophole to be managed around later; it’s the actual deal being made. A CRT is a strong fit for someone who is genuinely charitably motivated and wants an income stream in exchange for that gift. It is a poor fit for someone whose primary goal is maximizing what eventually passes to their own heirs, because heirs, by design, are not who the remainder is for.

The question underneath the tax mechanics

The reason this structure exists isn’t really about tax efficiency, even though that’s the language it gets described in. It exists for the specific person who has two things true about them at once: an appreciated asset they no longer want to actively hold, and a genuine wish to see part of it matter to a cause after they’re gone. The tax deferral, the income stream, the deduction — those are the mechanics that make the charitable half financially survivable for the retiree who also needs to live on the money. Strip the charitable intent out, and the whole structure stops making sense; it was never designed to be a clever way to sell real estate.

Sources

1. Internal Revenue Service, “Charitable remainder trusts,” irs.gov/charities-non-profits/charitable-remainder-trusts.

2. 26 U.S. Code § 664 (Charitable remainder trusts) — tax-exempt status of the trust itself, subject to unrelated business taxable income provisions.

3. 26 U.S. Code § 664(d) — statutory definitions distinguishing charitable remainder annuity trusts (fixed payment) from charitable remainder unitrusts (fixed percentage, revalued annually).

4. 26 U.S. Code § 664(d)(1)-(2) — 5%-to-50% annual payout requirement and the 10% minimum present-value remainder-interest requirement, both determined under IRC § 7520 actuarial tables.

5. Internal Revenue Service, “Charitable remainder trusts” — partial income tax deduction based on the present value of the charitable remainder interest, calculated at the time of the trust’s funding.

6. Internal Revenue Service, “Charitable remainder trusts” — four-tier taxation ordering rule for distributions (ordinary income, capital gains, other income, tax-free return of corpus).

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Charitable remainder trusts are complex, irrevocable structures with significant tax and estate consequences. Consult a licensed estate attorney and tax professional before establishing one.

August 19, 2026
Contesting a Will: Grounds, Odds, and What It Actually Costs

A daughter watched her father’s will — signed six weeks before his death, during a period when he was heavily medicated and rarely lucid — leave nearly everything to a caregiver he’d known for less than a year. Her instinct was to say the will simply wasn’t “fair.” A court doesn’t care whether a will is fair. It cares whether the will is valid — and those are two entirely different standards, one of which she’d need actual evidence to meet.

Disagreeing with a will and having grounds to contest it are not the same thing

Courts operate from a strong presumption that a validly executed will reflects the testator’s actual wishes, and that presumption doesn’t yield to a family member simply feeling shortchanged or believing a different distribution would have been more equitable. To contest a will successfully, a challenger generally has to prove one of a narrow set of specific legal grounds: lack of testamentary capacity (the testator didn’t understand what a will is, what property they had, or who their natural heirs were, at the time of signing), undue influence (someone exploited a position of trust or the testator’s vulnerability to substitute their own wishes for the testator’s), fraud (the testator was deceived about the document they were signing or its contents), or improper execution (the will wasn’t signed, witnessed, or notarized according to the state’s specific legal requirements).¹

Standing comes before any of that even gets considered

Before a court will hear a challenge on its merits, the challenger has to establish standing — legal authority to bring the contest at all. Generally, only someone who would financially benefit from the will being invalidated has standing: an heir who would inherit more under a prior will or under the state’s intestacy laws, for instance. A person who receives the same amount or more under the current will than they would under any alternative typically lacks standing to challenge it, regardless of how strong their evidence of wrongdoing might otherwise be — the law isn’t interested in disputes brought by people who have nothing to personally gain from winning them.²

The clock starts running before most families are ready to think about it

Every state imposes a statute of limitations on will contests, and the window is often short — frequently measured in months rather than years, typically starting when the will is admitted to probate or when formal notice is given to interested parties. This creates a genuinely uncomfortable overlap: the legal deadline to challenge a will often falls squarely within the same window families are actively grieving, which means a valid concern raised too late — discovered only after the deadline has quietly passed — may have no legal remedy left at all, regardless of how compelling the underlying evidence turns out to be.

The clause specifically written to make you think twice

Many wills include a “no-contest clause” (also called an in terrorem clause), which provides that a beneficiary who challenges the will and loses forfeits whatever they would otherwise have received under it. These clauses are a direct deterrent aimed at exactly this situation — discouraging a beneficiary who’s already inheriting something from risking that inheritance on a contest that might fail. Enforceability varies significantly by state: some states enforce no-contest clauses strictly, some recognize a “probable cause” exception that protects a beneficiary who had a good-faith, reasonable basis for the challenge even if it ultimately doesn’t succeed, and a small number of states — Florida among them — have declared no-contest clauses unenforceable entirely, regardless of what the will says.³ Whether this clause matters at all in a given contest depends entirely on which state’s law applies, which is a critical fact to establish before deciding whether to challenge a will that contains one.

Why undue influence is both the most common and the hardest ground to prove

Undue influence tends to be the most frequently alleged ground for a will contest, and also one of the hardest to prove, because it requires demonstrating something that happened in private, often without witnesses — that someone exploited a position of trust or a testator’s cognitive or physical vulnerability to substitute their own preferences for the testator’s genuine wishes. Courts typically look for a cluster of circumstantial factors rather than direct proof: a suspicious change in the will shortly before death, a beneficiary who had unusual control over the testator’s daily life and isolated them from other family members, and a distribution that departs sharply and unexplainably from the testator’s prior expressed wishes or long-standing estate plan. No single factor is usually enough on its own; contesting attorneys typically have to build a pattern from several of them together.

What it costs, beyond the legal fees

A will contest is litigation, with the associated attorney’s fees, discovery costs, and time that any lawsuit carries — costs that come out of the challenger’s own pocket regardless of outcome, and that can, in some states and circumstances, be assessed against the losing side or even paid from the estate itself, depending on the jurisdiction and the specifics of the case. The financial cost is often not the largest one. A will contest is, definitionally, a lawsuit against family — siblings, a stepparent, sometimes a parent’s own chosen beneficiary — conducted during the same period the family is supposed to be grieving together. Even a successful contest frequently leaves relationships that don’t recover, which is a cost no verdict can restore.

Sources

1. State probate statutes generally recognize lack of testamentary capacity, undue influence, fraud, and improper execution as the primary grounds for a will contest; see, e.g., 20 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 908 (Pennsylvania’s statutory grounds: undue influence, lack of testamentary capacity, fraud, forgery, or improper execution).

2. General probate standing doctrine — a will contest requires standing, generally limited to a person who would financially benefit from a successful challenge (e.g., would receive more under intestacy or a prior will than under the challenged will).

3. Cornell Law School, Legal Information Institute, “No-Contest Clause” — variation in state enforcement of in terrorem clauses, including the probable cause exception recognized by California courts (Estate of Gonzalez) and the statutory unenforceability of no-contest clauses in Florida (Fla. Stat. § 732.517).

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Grounds for contesting a will, standing requirements, statutes of limitation, and no-contest clause enforceability all vary significantly by state. Consult a licensed estate litigation attorney promptly if you believe you have grounds to contest a will.

August 19, 2026
Digital Estate Planning: Who Gets Your Passwords and Accounts When You’re Gone

When a woman died unexpectedly, her sister spent months trying to access her email account — not for sentimental reasons, but because two years of tax records, the login for her mortgage servicer, and the only copy of digital photos from the last decade lived nowhere else. The email provider required a court order to grant access, even to the appointed executor. The sister eventually got it. It took four months and a specific set of documents nobody had told her she’d need, for an account that, functionally, was the front door to the rest of the estate.

Being named executor doesn’t automatically open digital accounts

For centuries, estate law assumed assets were physical or at least had a paper trail — a house, a bank account, a stock certificate. Digital assets broke that assumption: email accounts, social media profiles, cloud storage, and cryptocurrency wallets are governed by the terms of service of private companies, which historically had no legal obligation to grant a deceased user’s family or executor any access at all, regardless of what a will said. States responded with the Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act (RUFADAA), now adopted in some form by the large majority of states, which establishes a legal framework for how executors, trustees, and agents under a power of attorney can obtain authorized access to a deceased or incapacitated person’s digital accounts.¹

The tool that decides everything before RUFADAA even applies

Here’s the detail that surprises most people: under RUFADAA, if the deceased used an “online tool” provided by the service itself — Google’s Inactive Account Manager, Facebook’s Legacy Contact setting, Apple’s Legacy Contact feature — to designate who should have access after death, that designation legally controls and overrides even instructions in the person’s own will.² A will that says “my executor should have access to all my digital accounts” can be superseded by a platform-specific setting the deceased configured, or failed to configure, years earlier and never thought about again. If no online tool designation exists, RUFADAA then looks to the person’s will, trust, or power of attorney for explicit authorization — and if that’s silent too, the fallback is each individual platform’s own terms of service, which is where the four-month ordeal above actually originated.

Why RUFADAA deliberately doesn’t hand over everything

Even with proper legal authorization, RUFADAA draws a meaningful line between two categories of digital assets. Account catalogs — a list of contacts, photos, files, and general account information — are generally accessible to a properly authorized fiduciary. The actual content of electronic communications — the text of emails, private messages, direct messages — is treated with a higher bar of protection, and many providers will only release that content if the deceased explicitly consented to it in advance, whether through the platform’s own tool, a will, or another legal document.³ This distinction exists because private correspondence carries privacy expectations for the other party in the conversation too — someone who emailed the deceased didn’t necessarily consent to their messages being read by an executor after the fact.

The asset class that behaves nothing like the rest of this list

Cryptocurrency deserves separate mention because it fails in a way no other digital asset does: a lost password to an email account can eventually be recovered through a provider’s identity verification process. A lost private key or seed phrase to a cryptocurrency wallet generally cannot be recovered by anyone — not the family, not the executor, not even the exchange, if the wallet is self-custodied. There is no customer service line to call and no court order that reconstitutes a lost cryptographic key. Cryptocurrency holdings without a documented, securely stored recovery method are, upon the holder’s death, functionally gone — not legally transferred to anyone, simply permanently inaccessible.

The document that actually solves this, and it isn’t the will

A will is a public document once it’s filed with the probate court — exactly the wrong place to list account passwords and security question answers. The practical solution most estate attorneys recommend is a separate, private document — sometimes called a digital asset inventory or included as part of a broader letter of instruction — that lists accounts, platforms, and where credentials or recovery information can be found (ideally in a password manager with the master credentials shared securely with a trusted person or attorney, rather than written out in the letter itself). This document has no formal legal power on its own, but it’s the map that makes everything else — the will’s authorization, the RUFADAA request, the executor’s actual work — possible to execute in practice rather than in theory.

Set the platform tool, name the digital fiduciary, write the map

Three concrete actions cover most of what digital estate planning actually requires: configure the legacy or inactive-account tool on major platforms where one exists, since RUFADAA gives that setting priority over everything else; explicitly authorize digital asset access for your executor or agent in your will or power of attorney, so a fallback exists where no platform tool is available; and maintain a private, securely stored inventory of accounts and access information, updated as accounts change, so the authorization granted on paper actually has something to act on.

Sources

1. Uniform Law Commission, Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act (2015), adopted in some form by the large majority of U.S. states as of 2026 — legal framework governing fiduciary access to a deceased or incapacitated person’s digital assets.

2. Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act — priority given to a user’s designation made through an online tool provided by a custodian (e.g., Google Inactive Account Manager, Facebook Legacy Contact) over conflicting instructions in a will.

3. Revised Uniform Fiduciary Access to Digital Assets Act — distinction between fiduciary access to a catalog of electronic communications versus the content of electronic communications, with content access requiring the user’s explicit prior consent.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Digital asset access laws vary by state and by platform terms of service. Consult a licensed estate attorney to incorporate digital asset planning into your estate plan.

August 19, 2026
Dynasty Trusts, Explained: When Multi-Generational Trust Planning Makes Sense (and When It’s Overkill)

For centuries, English common law placed a hard limit on how long a trust could tie up property: roughly a life in being plus 21 years, a rule designed specifically to stop wealthy families from controlling assets from beyond the grave indefinitely. Then, starting with South Dakota in 1983, American states began quietly repealing that rule inside their own borders — not out of philosophical disagreement with it, but as a deliberate strategy to attract trust business. Today, more than 20 states plus the District of Columbia have abolished or substantially weakened it.¹ A trust structure that English law spent centuries preventing is now, in a specific set of American states, explicitly legal to run forever.

What made the old rule necessary, and what changed

The rule against perpetuities existed to balance a real tension: a person’s right to control their own property against society’s broader interest in property eventually landing in the hands of someone who can freely buy, sell, or otherwise put it to use, rather than remaining locked in a trust’s terms indefinitely, generation after generation. A dynasty trust is precisely what that rule was built to prevent — an irrevocable trust designed to last far longer than a single generation, in states that permit it, potentially forever, holding and growing assets for the benefit of descendants across multiple generations without the trust ever needing to terminate and distribute everything outright.

The tax mechanism that makes “forever” financially attractive

A dynasty trust’s appeal isn’t just structural — it’s built directly on top of the generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax exemption. If a grantor allocates their full lifetime GST exemption ($13.99 million in 2025, rising to $15 million in 2026) to a properly structured dynasty trust when it’s funded, the trust’s assets, and all future appreciation on those assets, can pass down through multiple generations without triggering additional estate tax or GST tax at each successive generation’s death — because the assets are never actually owned outright by any individual generation along the way.² In a state that has also abolished the rule against perpetuities, there’s no legal requirement that the trust ever terminate and distribute its assets outright, meaning the tax-advantaged structure can, in principle, continue indefinitely.

Why the state where the trust is established matters more than the state where the family lives

This is the detail that surprises people encountering dynasty trusts for the first time: the trust doesn’t need to be created in the state where the grantor or beneficiaries actually live. A family in a state that retains the rule against perpetuities can still establish a dynasty trust by choosing a trustee and situs in a state like South Dakota, Delaware, Alaska, or Nevada — all of which compete actively for trust business by offering perpetual trust laws, strong asset protection statutes, and, in some cases, no state income tax on trust income.³ This has created a genuine, ongoing competition among a handful of states to be the preferred jurisdiction for exactly this kind of long-duration trust planning.

What a family actually gives up for “forever”

The tradeoff scales with the trust’s duration. An irrevocable trust that might run for eighty or a hundred years, let alone indefinitely, has to be drafted with extraordinary care around trustee succession, distribution standards that can flex across generations whose needs no one alive today can predict, and mechanisms for beneficiaries the grantor will never meet. A dynasty trust drafted narrowly around one generation’s specific circumstances can become a poor fit, or an outright obstacle, for great-grandchildren facing a completely different financial and family landscape a century later — with no living grantor available to adjust the terms. This isn’t a hypothetical risk; it’s the central design challenge of writing instructions meant to govern decisions for people who don’t exist yet.

The honest scope of who this tool is actually for

A dynasty trust is a strategy for estates large enough that the GST exemption and the multi-generational tax deferral it enables are meaningfully valuable — which, as with the underlying GST tax itself, describes a small fraction of American households. For the overwhelming majority of families, the complexity, ongoing administrative cost, and rigidity of a perpetual trust structure solves a problem — multi-generational estate tax erosion — that their estate was never large enough to actually have.

Sources

1. Connecticut General Assembly, Office of Legislative Research, Report 2010-R-0250, “Dynasty Trusts” — more than 20 states and the District of Columbia have adopted laws abolishing or modifying the common-law rule against perpetuities to permit dynasty trusts.

2. Congressional Research Service, IF13053, “The Generation-Skipping Transfer Tax (GSTT)”; 26 U.S. Code § 2631 — lifetime GST exemption amounts and their role in shielding multi-generational trust transfers from GST tax.

3. State trust statutes of South Dakota (S.D. Codified Laws § 43-5-8), Delaware, Alaska, and Nevada — among the states that have abolished the rule against perpetuities and actively compete for trust situs business through favorable trust and tax law.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Dynasty trust structuring, choice of trust situs, and GST exemption allocation are highly technical and consequential decisions. Consult a licensed estate attorney and tax professional before establishing a dynasty trust.

August 19, 2026
Estate Planning for Blended Families: Whose Kids Get What

A man raised his wife’s daughter from her prior marriage for eighteen years — school events, tuition, holidays, everything a father does — and always assumed she’d inherit alongside his biological children without needing to think about it further. When he died without a will, state intestacy law didn’t ask how the family actually functioned. It asked a narrower legal question: who is a legal child. His stepdaughter, whom he’d raised as his own in every practical sense, had no legal inheritance right to his estate at all, because he had never legally adopted her and had never named her in a will.¹

The law counts bloodlines and legal status, not relationships

In the overwhelming majority of states, stepchildren have no automatic inheritance rights from a stepparent, regardless of how long the relationship lasted or how the family actually functioned day to day. Absent a legal adoption, a stepchild inherits from a stepparent only if that stepparent specifically names them in a will, a trust, or as a designated beneficiary on an account. If the stepparent dies without a will, state intestacy statutes typically distribute the estate to legal spouses, biological or legally adopted children, and other blood relatives in a defined hierarchy — a hierarchy that simply does not include a stepchild as a category, no matter how close the relationship was.²

Why the surviving spouse’s own will can undo everything, later

Even a well-drafted will made during marriage carries a specific and often unrecognized risk in blended families: if a spouse dies first and leaves everything outright to the surviving spouse, trusting the survivor to eventually pass assets down fairly to both sets of children, nothing legally requires the surviving spouse to actually do that. The surviving spouse can rewrite their own will at any point after the first spouse’s death — removing stepchildren entirely, favoring their own biological children, or leaving everything to a subsequent new spouse. This isn’t a hypothetical risk raised to be alarmist; it’s a well-documented, recurring failure pattern in blended-family estate planning, precisely because the first spouse’s original intentions have no binding legal force once assets pass to the surviving spouse outright.

The structural fix, and why it exists specifically for this problem

This is exactly the gap a QTIP trust is built to close. Rather than leaving assets outright to a surviving spouse, a QTIP trust provides the surviving spouse with income for life while permanently directing the remainder, at the surviving spouse’s death, to beneficiaries the first spouse specifically named — commonly, that first spouse’s own children from a prior relationship. Because the trust’s terms are locked in by the first spouse and cannot be altered by the surviving spouse, this structure allows a blended family to provide generously for a current spouse while still guaranteeing that children from a previous relationship are not later disinherited by a decision the deceased spouse has no ability to prevent or even witness.

Why “equal” and “fair” split apart faster in blended families

Blended families often surface a tension that simpler family structures don’t: a spouse may feel obligated to provide equally for stepchildren they’ve genuinely helped raise, while also wanting to ensure their biological children — particularly from a prior marriage — aren’t diluted out of an inheritance by a newer family structure they had no say in creating. There’s no universally correct resolution to this; it depends entirely on the specific relationships, the length of the marriage, each spouse’s individual assets brought into the marriage, and what each parent actually believes is fair given their family’s particular history. What blended-family estate planning can’t skip is making that decision explicitly, in writing — the alternative isn’t neutrality, it’s simply letting default intestacy rules or an outdated will make the decision by omission.

Beneficiary designations deserve the same scrutiny a second time around

A remarriage is precisely the moment beneficiary designations on retirement accounts and life insurance policies most urgently need review, because these designations pass outside the will entirely and are frequently the source of the most painful blended-family surprises — a life insurance policy still listing a first spouse, or a 401(k) beneficiary form nobody updated after a decade-old divorce, can override even the most carefully drafted current will, delivering an outcome nobody in the current family intended or expected.

The conversation that has to happen before the documents do

Blended-family estate planning fails less often because of bad legal drafting and more often because the hard conversation — who gets what, and why — never actually happened between the spouses before the documents were signed. A plan drafted quickly, without both spouses genuinely agreeing on the framework, tends to surface its problems only after one spouse has died and can no longer clarify their intent. The legal tools — QTIP trusts, updated beneficiary designations, explicit stepchild inclusion in a will — only work as well as the underlying agreement they’re built to enforce.

Sources

1. General state intestacy law doctrine — stepchildren, absent legal adoption, are not included in the statutory hierarchy of heirs who inherit when a person dies without a will.

2. State intestate succession statutes generally define “child” to include biological and legally adopted children, excluding stepchildren absent a specific legal adoption or explicit testamentary designation.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Stepchild inheritance rights, intestacy hierarchies, and QTIP trust rules vary by state. Consult a licensed estate attorney to structure an estate plan for a blended family.

August 19, 2026
Family Limited Partnerships: A Business Owner’s Tool for Passing Down the Company

A manufacturing company founder wanted to start transferring ownership of his business to his three children over time, but he had no intention of giving up control while he was still running daily operations. Handing over shares outright would have meant handing over votes, too — the same shares that determine ownership typically determine who has a say in how the company is run. He needed a way to move economic value to his children without moving the steering wheel. A family limited partnership was built for exactly that separation.

Two classes of partner, two very different experiences

A family limited partnership (FLP) is a limited partnership, formed under a state’s limited partnership statute, in which family members hold interests — typically the parents or business founders as general partners, and children or other family members as limited partners. The structural split is the entire point: general partners retain full management control over the partnership’s assets and decisions, while limited partners hold an economic interest — a right to a share of profits and, eventually, assets — with little to no say in day-to-day management and, in many states, personal liability limited to their investment in the partnership.¹

This lets a founder gift or sell limited partnership interests to children over time — often using the annual gift tax exclusion to transfer interests gradually, year after year, without touching the lifetime estate and gift tax exemption — while remaining the general partner who continues making every operational decision. The children accumulate ownership. The founder keeps running the business exactly as before.

Why the IRS built specific rules just for this structure

Because a limited partnership interest lacks control and is difficult to sell to an outside buyer, appraisers have long applied valuation discounts — for lack of control and lack of marketability — when determining the interest’s fair market value for gift and estate tax purposes. A $100,000 pro-rata share of a family business, restructured as a limited partnership interest with no voting rights and no ready market, might be valued at meaningfully less than $100,000 for tax purposes, because a hypothetical outside buyer would genuinely pay less for an interest with those restrictions.

The IRS has scrutinized this discounting closely for decades, and Congress enacted a specific set of rules — Internal Revenue Code Chapter 14, including Section 2704 — to limit abusive uses of family-controlled entities to artificially depress valuations for tax purposes, particularly by disregarding certain restrictions that family members impose on each other but wouldn’t impose on an unrelated party.² The upshot: valuation discounts on FLP interests are a real and generally accepted planning technique, but they operate within specific statutory guardrails, and the size of a discount taken has been a recurring, fact-intensive subject of IRS challenge and litigation. This is not a do-it-yourself valuation exercise.

It has to actually be a business, not a wrapper around a bank account

An FLP holding genuine operating business assets, real estate, or an investment portfolio managed with real economic substance is on much firmer ground than one that exists purely to move money into a lower-tax structure with no legitimate business purpose behind it. Courts and the IRS have repeatedly challenged FLPs that appear to be formed shortly before death, that commingle personal and partnership funds, or that maintain no meaningful business operations or formalities — treating those structures as a tax avoidance device dressed up as a partnership, and in some cases pulling the full value of the assets back into the decedent’s taxable estate as though the FLP never existed. The valuation discounts and gifting flexibility an FLP offers are available to genuine businesses run with genuine partnership formalities — not retroactively to whatever gets labeled a partnership on paper.

What this actually solves for a family business owner

The appeal of an FLP for a business-owning family isn’t really the tax discount, even though that’s often the headline. It’s the ability to separate two things that a simple stock transfer bundles together by default: economic benefit and operational control. A founder can begin transitioning wealth to the next generation on a schedule they choose, while continuing to run the business they built for as long as they’re able and willing — and only handing over actual decision-making authority, as opposed to economic value, on their own timeline, whether that’s gradual or all at once at a later date they specify.

Sources

1. State limited partnership statutes (generally derived from the Uniform Limited Partnership Act) — general partner management authority and liability exposure versus limited partner passive ownership and limited liability.

2. 26 U.S. Code § 2704 (part of Internal Revenue Code Chapter 14, “Special Valuation Rules”) — rules disregarding certain family-imposed restrictions on liquidation and transfer when valuing interests in family-controlled entities for gift and estate tax purposes.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Family limited partnership formation, valuation discount methodology, and IRS scrutiny standards are highly technical and fact-specific. Consult a licensed estate attorney, business valuation professional, and tax professional before establishing an FLP.

August 19, 2026
Generation-Skipping Trusts: Passing Wealth to Grandchildren Without Double Taxation

A grandmother wanted to leave money directly to her grandchildren rather than routing it through her own children first — her son and daughter-in-law were financially comfortable, and she felt the money would matter more to the grandchildren’s education and first homes than it would passing through an intermediate generation that didn’t need it. Her instinct ran straight into a piece of tax law written specifically to discourage exactly that move. Congress noticed, decades ago, that wealthy families were skipping a generation on purpose — not out of family preference, but to avoid paying estate tax twice on the same money as it passed from grandparent to parent, then parent to grandchild. They built a tax to close that gap.

The tax that exists because skipping a generation used to be a loophole

The generation-skipping transfer (GST) tax applies to transfers — whether outright gifts, bequests, or transfers into trust — made to a “skip person,” generally someone more than 37.5 years younger than the person making the transfer, most commonly a grandchild.¹ Before this tax existed, a wealthy family could route assets to grandchildren, having those assets taxed once at the grandparent’s death instead of twice — once at the grandparent’s death and again at the parent’s, when normally it would have passed through the parent’s own taxable estate along the way. The GST tax closes that gap by imposing an additional flat tax, currently 40%, on transfers to skip persons, on top of whatever gift or estate tax otherwise applies.²

The exemption that makes generation-skipping trusts possible at all

Here’s what actually makes a generation-skipping trust a viable planning tool rather than just an expensive tax trap: every individual has a lifetime GST exemption, currently $13.99 million for 2025, rising to $15 million in 2026, that can be allocated to transfers made to skip persons, shielding those transfers from the GST tax entirely, up to the exemption amount.³ A generation-skipping trust is simply an irrevocable trust structured to hold assets for grandchildren (or later generations) while the grantor allocates GST exemption to the transfer, so that neither the initial transfer into the trust nor, in a properly drafted “dynasty” version of the trust, future transfers as the trust continues for further generations, triggers GST tax.

This is the detail that makes the strategy genuinely powerful rather than a modest convenience: once a trust is fully allocated GST exemption and structured correctly, the trust’s assets — and all future growth on those assets — can potentially pass down through multiple generations without triggering estate tax or GST tax at each successive death, because the assets are never actually owned outright by any individual generation along the way. The trust owns them; each generation simply benefits from them under the trust’s terms.

Why the middle generation isn’t actually cut out, usually

A common misconception is that a generation-skipping trust literally excludes the middle generation — the grandparent’s own children — from any benefit. In practice, these trusts are frequently drafted to provide income or discretionary distributions to the middle generation during their lifetime, with the remaining principal passing to grandchildren only after the middle generation’s death. The “skip” in generation-skipping refers to which generation’s estate the assets are taxed as part of, not necessarily to which generation receives any benefit at all. A middle generation can receive meaningful support from the trust throughout their life while the assets themselves are never included in that generation’s own taxable estate — that’s the actual mechanism, and it’s considerably more common than a hard cutout of the middle generation entirely.

The annual exclusion works here too, within limits

Direct gifts to a grandchild, and certain gifts to trusts that meet specific requirements, can use the annual gift tax exclusion — $19,000 per recipient in 2025 — without consuming any of the lifetime GST exemption, provided the gift qualifies as a present interest and, for trusts, meets additional GST-specific requirements around vesting.⁴ This allows smaller, ongoing transfers to accumulate over years without needing to touch the larger lifetime exemption at all, reserving that exemption for larger, one-time transfers into a generation-skipping trust structure.

Why this isn’t a strategy for most estates

The GST tax, like the federal estate tax it layers on top of, is only a live concern for estates large enough to be approaching or exceeding the multimillion-dollar exemption thresholds in the first place. For the overwhelming majority of families, a straightforward bequest to children, who then decide independently how to provide for their own children, accomplishes the family’s actual goals without needing a specialized trust built to navigate a tax that, for most estates, was never going to apply.

Sources

1. Congressional Research Service, IF13053, “The Generation-Skipping Transfer Tax (GSTT)” — definition of skip person as an individual more than 37.5 years younger than the transferor, or a trust where all interests are held by skip persons.

2. Congressional Research Service, IF13053 — GST tax imposed at a flat 40% rate on transfers to skip persons, in addition to applicable gift or estate tax.

3. Congressional Research Service, IF13053; 26 U.S. Code § 2631 — lifetime GST exemption of $13.99 million in 2025, rising to $15 million in 2026 under P.L. 119-21; exemption is portable in allocation but not automatically between spouses in the same manner as the estate tax exemption.

4. Internal Revenue Service, annual gift tax exclusion amount ($19,000 per recipient for 2025); 26 U.S. Code § 2642(c) — annual GST exclusion requirements for transfers in trust.

This article is for educational purposes only and does not constitute legal, tax, or financial advice. Generation-skipping trust structuring, GST exemption allocation, and interaction with state rule-against-perpetuities law are highly technical. Consult a licensed estate attorney and tax professional before establishing a generation-skipping trust.

August 19, 2026